Pope Leo XIV’s election as the first U.S.-born pontiff places him in an extraordinary and complex legal position: an American citizen who now serves as a foreign head of state. Born Robert Prevost in Chicago in 1955, Pope Leo has held dual citizenship with the United States and Peru, where he spent significant time as a missionary and bishop before ascending to the papacy. This unique duality raises important questions about the interplay between U.S. citizenship laws and international diplomatic protocols, especially given the pope’s role as the spiritual leader of roughly 1.4 billion Catholics and the head of the independent Vatican City State.
Vatican City, the world’s smallest nation, encompasses just 0.17 square miles and has a population numbering in the hundreds. Established as an independent state in 1929 via treaty between Italy and the Holy See, Vatican City grants the pope sovereign authority not only over the Catholic Church’s global spiritual affairs but also over this sovereign territory. Consequently, Pope Leo XIV now occupies a role that is part religious leader and part head of government, a dual status that few in history have ever held — and one that intersects intriguingly with U.S. laws on citizenship.
The U.S. Department of State notes that Americans who serve as foreign heads of state, heads of government, or foreign ministers may be subject to “active review” of their citizenship status. This is due to the legal complexities involving international law, particularly questions about immunity from U.S. jurisdiction granted to such officials. In essence, a foreign leader’s immunity might conflict with the foundational U.S. constitutional principle that no citizen is above the law.
However, the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1980 ruling establishes that an American citizen cannot be involuntarily stripped of citizenship unless they explicitly intend to renounce it. In this light, legal scholars widely believe that Pope Leo XIV is unlikely to lose his American citizenship merely by becoming pope. Temple University law professor Peter Spiro emphasizes that without explicit renunciation, the State Department does not assume a loss of citizenship.
Moreover, Peruvian law does not conflict with the pope maintaining his American citizenship. Pope Leo was granted Peruvian citizenship in August 2015 after residing there for at least two years and passing a civics exam. Jorge Puch, a Peruvian official, praised the pope’s decision to naturalize, calling it a commendable choice that symbolizes his connection to Peru.
In Peru, citizens are generally required to vote until age 69, but Pope Leo will be exempt from this requirement, as he will turn 70 shortly after the upcoming presidential elections. The pope’s dual citizenship situation appears legally sound under both U.S. and Peruvian frameworks, allowing him to fulfill his duties without apparent conflict.
Interestingly, the Vatican does not typically disclose detailed information about the citizenship status of previous popes upon their election. For instance, Pope Francis renewed his Argentine passport in 2014, a year after becoming pope, while his predecessors—German-born Pope Benedict XVI and Polish-born Pope John Paul II—never publicly renounced their native citizenships. John Paul II was notable as the first non-Italian pope in over four centuries.
Historian Margaret Susan Thompson notes that while Pope Leo XIV probably will not renounce his American citizenship, his decision to deliver his first papal speech in Italian and Spanish rather than English sends a clear message: his role is that of the universal pope of the Catholic Church, transcending any national identity.
The pope’s situation is not without precedent among world leaders with dual or foreign citizenships. Former British Prime Minister Boris Johnson, born in New York City to British parents, renounced his U.S. citizenship in 2016 before becoming prime minister in 2019. Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, former president of Somalia and a U.S. naturalized citizen, renounced his American citizenship after assuming office. Similarly, Valdas Adamkus, who fled Soviet-occupied Lithuania and became a U.S. citizen, relinquished his American citizenship after being elected president of Lithuania in 1998.
Pope Leo XIV’s unique position as both a U.S. citizen and foreign head of state encapsulates the complex intersection of national allegiance, international diplomacy, and spiritual leadership. As the leader of the Holy See and Vatican City, he embodies a role rarely seen in modern geopolitics, and his dual citizenship status highlights evolving legal and constitutional challenges in a globalized world.
The continued dialogue around his citizenship status underscores larger questions about identity, sovereignty, and the responsibilities of global leaders who straddle multiple nations and legal systems. While the pope’s spiritual mission unites millions worldwide, his legal status serves as a fascinating case study in the relationship between citizenship, international law, and the unique nature of the papacy.
As Pope Leo XIV leads the Catholic Church into a new era, his dual citizenship is a reminder that even the most ancient institutions must navigate contemporary legal and political realities, balancing tradition with the demands of the modern world.
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